M Statistics

MAT 300: STATISTICS M&M PROJECT PAPER ALEXANDREA WINT PROFESSOR AZAD, VARGHA June 3, 2012 Purpose of Report The purpose of this project is to find the information for a quality control manager of Masterfoods plant. The manager wants to know about the proportion of candies and if they are the same or different. If there is any difference that exists then the manager wants to know why there is a difference in such cases. A study was conducted and results were obtained and based on these statistical results we will try to gain information about the quality of Masterfoods plant.Part1: Sampling Method Sampling method is used to draw the random sample from the population of candies from different bags is known as the simple random sampling without replacement. 36 bags were drawn from the population of different color of candies and after drawing the 36 samples; the numbers of different candies are calculated. For sample in bag one how many are blue candies, how many are red candies, how ma ny are yellow candies etc. There are six different colors in each bag. So the record is made after collecting the sample. Part 2: Method, Analysis, ResultsIn this section we have made attempts to find the descriptive statistics related to the number of candies or proportion of candies in the bag. The mean number of candies per bag is approximately equaled to 55. This means that we are expecting 55 candies with a standard deviation of 2. 1 in each bag and out of these we also expecting that the proportion of different colors of candies should be equal for each bag. The sample proportion for blue candies is . 1916, for orange candies is 0. 18, for green candies is 0. 1815, for yellow candies is 0. 663, for red candies is 0. 136 and for brown candies is 0. 1446. For this results we have sampled 36 bags which contains 1978 candies overall. Part 3: Method, Analysis, Results For this part the 95% confidence intervals are obtained for each color of candies and also the mean number of candi es. The following results are obtained from the analysis: * 95% confident that the population proportion for blue candies will lies between 0. 1743 and 0. 20895. * 95% confident that the population proportion for orange candies will lies between 0. 1631 and 0. 969 * 95% confident that the population proportion for green candies will lies between 0. 16451 and 0. 19848 * 95% confident that the population proportion for yellow candies will lies between 0. 14992 and 0. 18274 * 95% confident that the population proportion for red candies will lies between 0. 12089, 0. 1511 * 95% confident that the population proportion for brown candies will lies between 0. 12909, 0. 16009. In addition to this we can say that 438 candies should be sampled to obtain a 95% CI of the proportion of blue candies with a 4% margin of error if the known proportion of blue candies is 0. 4. Part 4: Method, Analysis, Results This portion explains the hypothesis testing for population proportion for different types/ colors of candies. Each candy was tested against their standard proportion, which was then fixed by the organization and we have obtained the results using the Z test for proportion. We can conclude below results based on the analysis of data: * The true proportion of blue candies is not equal to 0. 24 at 5% level of significance. * The true proportion of orange candies is not equal to 0. 0 at 5% level of significance. * The true proportion of green candies is not equal to 0. 16 at 5% level of significance. * The true proportion of yellow candies is not equal to 0. 14 at 5% level of significance. * The true proportion of red candies is equal to 0. 13 at 5% level of significance. * The true proportion of brown candies is equal to 0. 13 at 5% level of significance. * The population mean for each bag is more than 54 candies and standard deviation for number of candies per bag 1. 69oz bag is more than 1. at 5% level of significance Part 5: Method, Analysis, Results In this portion a che ck for whether the there is any significant difference in the population proportion of red and brown candies was done. For this we have tested the hypothesis at 5% level of significance. From the results which we obtained we can conclude that we are fail to reject the null hypothesis H0 because we don't have enough evidence to support the claim that the population proportions of red and brown are equal at 5% level of significance. Quality Control:It is obvious that there are 4 candy proportions that do not meet the requirement of set proportion; only red colored and brown colored candies met the specified requirement of proportion. So we want to check why there is a difference in the quality of the output. So some of the reason for this difference can be classified as: * The machine(s) is/are not working properly, is there any difference in the output of one machine? * There is a possibility that due to different workers at the different shifts the variation arises. There is any ass ignable or random cause occurs or in simple words we can say that machines are producing the same colored candies at regular intervals. Conclusion We can conclude from the above results that there quality of output is not at the point where the plant would like it to be, because the standard which are fixed in advance did not work best with the output which we have obtained. The four-population proportion for color blue, orange, green and yellow does not meet the set requirements.

Compare and Contrast a Life Raft, an Island, and Earth Essay

Survival is a key part of life in which humans have been attending to throughout our entire existence. As time progresses, technology and knowledge not only increases but also improves. Eventually, we develop to the point where our educational system has an important and crucial question where the students are asked to compare and contrast a life raft with emergency supplies in it, a moderately sized island, and Earth itself. The three subjects have a number of similarities and differences; however, some are obviously more important than others. Read Also:  Topics for a Compare and Contrast Essay There are quite a few similarities between a life raft, an island, and Earth, all of which are just as obvious as the differences. Each of the three can carry things in them. The Earth and an island hold many different things on their land, including us humans. A life raft can, and is meant to, hold things such as emergency supplies or people in it. More obviously, each of the three is in a solid state of matter. Also, each of them has its own gravitational pull or influence. Earth has its own gravitational pull; so naturally, things that are located on Earth are influenced and affected by gravity. Lastly, each of them (can) support life. Earth, itself, is supporting life for a huge number of organisms and beings at this very moment. An island supports not only a number of plants, but also some animals and other organisms as well. A life raft, or life boat, is meant to help people safely distance themselves from a larger ship or boat disaster. Because a life raft has emergency suppli es, it will support human life until they run out. With similarities, there are also differences within the life raft, island, and Earth. While Earth and the island is an ecosystem supporting a vast and diverse number of species and organisms, a life raft is merely just a lifeless boat. The island and Earth are also part of each other, while the life raft is more of an object that is used by humans. The island is  literally a part of Earth, they are one thing. However, the life raft is not a part of Earth; it’s more like a Third Party Program that is used along with the main server or program. This also leads to the fact that the life raft is man-made, rather than being organic like Earth or an island. Obviously, we humans did not create Earth. And in normal circumstances, humans also do not create islands. Comparing and contrasting a life raft with emergency supplies, a moderately sized island, and Earth is truly a random and odd thing to do. However, doing so would prove that everything has at least a similarity and difference. Where there is a similarity, there is also a difference. It could be an obvious and blatantly clear similarity or difference, or it could also be a well and critically thought comparison. In conclusion, the man-made life raft seems to be the center of difference and the background character of similarities.

Education - Project Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Education - Project Report - Essay Example The project was a national youth meeting characterised by a series of discussion groups involving young people, policy makers and stakeholder representatives. The activities focused on young people discussing youth mentoring issues and presenting their views on key issues and themes within youth mentoring. The participants included: fifty young people around from the United Kingdom, youth practitioners and experts in the youth issues and policy makers. The mentoring academy acted as the lead partner in planning and facilitating events. Table of Contents Project Report 1 Executive Summary 1 Table of Contents 2 Project Report 3 Participants 3 Context and Origin of the Project 3 Aims and Objectives 4 Methodology 4 Contribution to Non-Formal Learning 5 Involvement 6 Activities-Youth in Action Programme 6 Budget 9 Discussion 14 Responses 14 Achievement of Aims and Objectives 15 Impacts of the Project 16 Intercultural Dimension 16 European Dimension 17 Current Issues with Mentoring 17 Ment oring as a Government Policy 17 Benefit to the Mentees 18 Recommendations 19 Conclusion 19 References 20 Project Report Mentoring is defined as a direct non-judgmental relationship whereby an individual dedicates time to support another person. Youth mentoring is a concept of youth work that is increasingly being incorporated in various youth sectors such as schools, community youth settings and private sectors. The youth mentoring development project provides young people with opportunities to play an active role in improving the efficiency of mentoring programs. The project was a national youth meeting characteriaed by a series of discussion groups involving young people, policy makers and stakeholder representatives. The activities focused on young people to discussing youth mentoring issues and presenting their views on key issues and themes within youth mentoring. Participants The participants included: fifty young people around from the United Kingdom who comprised of 25 males and 25 females; youth practitioners and experts in the youth field i.e. Clapham Park Project, Northumberland Park Community Project, Lambeth Youth Council and Robert Levy Foundation; and policy makers such as Mentoring Academy, Great London Authority (GLA), Mayor’s Children and Young People’s Unit, The Learning Trust, and members of parliament Chuka Ummuna, David Lammy and Diane Abbott. The mentoring academy acted as the lead partner in planning and facilitating events. Context and Origin of the Project The project has originated from collaboration among different practitioners. It was developed by the mentoring academy with the purpose of engaging and supporting youths from the deprived areas of London. Mentoring has established itself as efficient tools in helping young people faced with the dangers of deprivation, enabling them lead a prosperous life. The project has also been populariaed by the fact that most emerging mentoring programs are being led by youth grou ps and increasingly seeking the services of peer mentors. Additionally, minimal research has been conducted on the needs of the mentees and mentors, and standards for mentoring modules yet many practitioners are demanding for this form of standardiaation. This provided the concept within which the project was developed. Aims and Objectives The principle aim of the research was to ensure that the opinions of the youths were incorporated in development of youth mentorship policies. The objectives

Mid-term Elections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mid-term Elections - Essay Example In contrast, Democrats bagged 256 seats while Republicans scored 179 in 2008. In addition, the Republicans won 29 seats against the opponent’s 17 in Governor House; however, they still lack majority in Senate where Democrats secured 51 seats (CBS Results, 2010). Quite unequivocally, there are several political and economic reasons that triggered the defeat of ruling Democrats, which now have to join the opposition. Nonetheless, the public endorsed Democratic candidates in last elections because they wanted economic betterment and prosperity, political stability and societal welfare. However, the so-called Democrat representatives flunked to meet public expectations because of sharp increase in unemployment (subsequent job losses), debacle of property sector (sub – prime mortgage) scheme), decline in healthcare spending, failure to develop and implement a sustainable financial system etc. Obviously, the public does not compromise as well as permit political candidates th at are unable to serve American society in an efficient and effective manner; hence they showcased their anger and despondency through the power of vote (Rooney, 2010). Schmuhl (2010) has pointed out that monetary spending on the election campaign by winning Democratic candidate Joe Donnelly was estimated to be $2.7 million whereas his Republican opponent Jackie Walorski spent over $0.8 million. As far as the consequences of the election results are concerned, it is worthwhile to mention that Democrats have received the public’s message regarding utter dissatisfaction, thus they are required to revise their existing policies and opt for betterment of USA as a whole. The promises will just not be enough; rather there is dire need for practical measures and implementation of rational strategies that could restore USA’s political, economic and social image among international community. Obama Administration should better focus on accomplishment of sustainable

HR Strategy for HSBC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

HR Strategy for HSBC - Essay Example This paper aims to provide an overview of the business strategy of HSBC Holdings plc and to develop the HR strategy that will fit the new company’s strategy. HSBC retail banking segment targets premium market, focusing on customers with medium to high incomes. Thus, the company is capable to earn good profits and to minimize risks associated with high-risk borrowings (Uvais, 2015). Recently, the company has updated its business strategy aiming to be â€Å"where the growth is, connecting customers to opportunities† (Hsbc.com, 2015). HSBC introduced a two-part strategy comprised of the following two elements: (1) a network of businesses connecting the world, and (2) wealth management and retail with local scale (Hsbc.com, 2015). Therefore, on the one hand, the company aims to achieve global reach and develop its business operations in the international arena, achieving thus economies of scales, and on the other hand, it aims to capture opportunities in wealth management and retail markets with a focus made on growth markets (Hsbc.com, 2015). Strategically, the company aims to expand its business in Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East as the markets with huge potential. Currently, the HSBC is restructuring its operations worldwide and in the UK. The company aims to improve its profitability and to reduce costs. In order to achieve this goal, the management is planning to cut the number of jobs significantly in the UK and across the globe. According to the most recent information, the company has introduced a cost-cutting strategy whereas its management aims to cut costs by $4.5 billion ( £3 billion) to $5 billion ( £3.3 billion) a year by 2017 (ITV News, 2015). However, in order to dampen the overall effect of this cost-cutting strategy, the company also has a plan to create more than 2000 new positions (Uvais, 2015).  

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 39

Case Study Example Therefore, it created a barrier of entry to any other interested investors. This made it easy for the competitors to penetrate the market, an aspect that could have reduced its market share significantly. One of the major strength of Electra is its strong financial base. Since its inception, the company has accumulated a lot of money. This has enabled the firm to create a strong business empire despite having a shaky start. In addition, the finances have enabled the firm to stage a strong marketing campaign, thereby making it easy to expand its operations in different parts of Mexico. Moreover, the company has been using the money to develop new product lines that have enabled it to increase its sales and attract a diverse market. This has been instrumental in ensuring that the success of the business is base on different pillars. Electra has an experienced workforce. Through opening different subsidiaries, the employees have gained experience on how to deal with customers who emanates from diverse cultural, religious, and racial backgrounds. As a result, the subordinates have been playing an important role of dealing with varying challenges that affect the business in the market. This has ensured that the business remains stable even in tough economic conditions. Another major strength by Electra is its strong brand. Over the years, the company has been setting a huge budget towards marketing. This is to remind the customers of the existence of its products and services and to persuade new customers to purchase their products and services. Through the use of audio, visual, and print media, the company has created a strong brand name, an aspect that has played a significant role in attracting customer loyalty. Furthermore, this strategy has been significant in retaining the loyal customers. This continuity coupled with high products

Improving Driver Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Improving Driver Safety - Essay Example Teens who start driving are excited about the freedom that driving gives them, and are less inclined to think seriously about safety issues. Communicating safety messages to teens can be problematic, simply because they're teenagers and may chafe at what they see as restrictions on their freedom. This means that to improve teen driving safety, education programs must deliver safety messages in ways that are specifically targeted to teens and which do not make them feel they are being 'talked down to'. Driving education programs for teenagers should be designed to stimulate interest in road safety and should clearly show them the possible consequences of unsafe driving. To help keep teens interested in the program, a range of activities should be designed that are fun and interactive while sending clear messages about the importance of road safety. Activities can include practical demonstrations which teens can take part in, and interactive film clips in which they can make choices for the characters portrayed. Educating teens on the practice of safe driving will include information on speeding, seat belts, drinking and driving, and how to handle distractions while driving.

The Aftermath of World War One Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

The Aftermath of World War One - Essay Example The race to attract the new colonies became utterly competitive. At the same time, the Ottoman Empire was decaying at a high rate. The nation that had been under the rule of Ottoman became independent resulting into change of balance in Europe. Various ethnic groups of Austria-Hungary began to fight and push for their independence. Trouble, however, came up in Weimar Germany after the Versailles treaty. Various dissatisfactions of the treaty emerged including loss of most of the territories of German speakers. Adolf Hitler and the Nazis took over power based on these dissatisfactions and came up with ideologies, which included unifying Germans to a single nation. Tension was created by the dissatisfaction and the ideologies brought about by the Nazis. As a result, Britain collaborated with France threatening to form a two-front war in Germany. Germans signed the non-aggression pact with USSR for their support thus dividing Europe into two: Nazi and Soviet influence spheres. This sparked the Second World War in September

Individual Course Assignment It is increasingly well-established in Essay

Individual Course Assignment It is increasingly well-established in the literature that mostbusiness reporting on sustainabi - Essay Example This is because if an organization fails to retain its sustainability then it may not prosper or enhance its dominancy in this competitive market among other rival players. Keeping this fact in mind, most of the organizations desire to retain its experienced and talented human resources. As they act as the prime resource of an organization (3M) thereby assisting it in the development of varied types of inventive eco-friendly products and services so as to satisfy the changing needs and requirements of the customers. By doing so, the brand image and profitability of the organization might get enhanced thereby amplifying the competitiveness and reliability in the market among others and such a strategy might also act positively thereby amplifying the chances of success and prosperity in the long run among other rivals. Thus, it might be clearly stated that sustainability is the prime criterion of an organization and it might get fulfilled by presenting environmental friendly products a nd services thereby satisfying the needs and requirements of the customers. This report is divided into five phases. ... It also specifies the importance of assurance and its standards along with conclusion and recommendations. What is sustainability? Sustainability is described as the socio-ecological procedure that helps in fulfilment of changing needs and desires of the customers. It is done by presenting eco-friendly products at a competitive price thereby retaining the eminence of the environment. It is done only to retain the quantity of the non-renewable resources of the environment so that it might be used for the future purposes as well. Along with this, development of eco-friendly products also helps in reducing the level of pollution thereby maintaining the uniqueness of the environment. Hence, it might be depicted that sustainability helps in enhancing the economic, environmental and social impacts by developing various inventive products or services to amplify customer base. Description of 3M 3M is one of the most renowned and branded American multinational conglomerate, established in the year 1902. 3M is regarded as Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, headquartered in the regions of St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S. After starting its operations in the continent of United States, very soon it expanded to the entire globe. So, it enhanced its total assets and revenues by $ 31.6 billion and $ 29.6 billion by the end of the year 2012. Along with this, the operating income also increased by $ 6.1 billion thereby amplifying its reputation and brand image in the market among other rival players. It is mainly due to the development of adhesives, laminates, passive fire protection, dental products, abrasives, electronic materials, medical products, car-care products, and wax and car shampoo. Other than this, it also presents products for the

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR & LEADERSHIP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR & LEADERSHIP - Essay Example Thus, for this reason Employee 1 used to work even in the weekends for receiving the bonus (Podsakoff & Schriesheim, 1985). Coercive power refers to such situation when an employee is forced by managers to abide by the order as a means of punishment. It may lead to employees’ dissatisfaction in the job. The marketing manager of Corporation A wanted that entire marketing employees should comply with his orders and work for more hours in a week (Podsakoff & Schriesheim, 1985). Legitimate power means that it is the perception of employees that managers have the capacity to give orders depending on the position. In the marketing department of Corporation A, employees considered that managers had the right to order and encourage them due to his position (Podsakoff & Schriesheim, 1985). Referent power relates to the respect of employees towards managers. In this context, managers direct by citing examples and it exists basically upon trust. In the given scenario of Corporation A, Employee 3 who works in sales department had only 1 year experience in this organization. His personality was liked by each individual for his positive attitude and charismatic nature. In one of the meetings, he had suggested a project for sales growth and was appreciated by everyone. Though he had not led team before, the corporation gave him the responsibility to manage the team over the project after receiving admiration from colleagues (Podsakoff & Schriesheim, 1985). Expert power indicates that a particular employee has high skill level or specialized knowledge over others. Employee 2 is a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) of the corporation. He had only the specialized skill for the formation of financial statements of the corporation. For this reason, he negotiated with the accountant manager to work only four days in a week and manager allowed as there was no other

Ema Essay Example for Free

Ema Essay The main reason for this is the radical changes put in place so rapidly with immediate effect. This resulted in lack of structure and consistency throughout the whole chain stores, as you gave each store manager to much autonomy to change the store i. e. decor, food menu etc. , the business culture values as a whole was lost and that was what made the business a success before. I understand some changes had to be made but not so drastically. The loss of business culture and lack of dimension of structure had a lot negative effect in the business especially demographic and sociology factor wise as regular customers dislike the changes and constant change in staff router, the reason for this was staff/managers never has any incentive target to work towards so they would leave after short while which causes extra expenditure cost. Some good ideas drawn from the case study but presented in a quite unstructured way Part b) In Study session 1 we introduced a series a metaphors to describe a business one of them was business as a culture which is a pattern of belief and expectation shared by the organisational members. These beliefs and expectation produces norms that powerfully shape the behaviour of individual and groups within the organisation. As you recruited new staff with no experience and gave managers freedom to change each branch to their liking it took away the business identity and culture. The cause of this is inadequate training giving to new staff and lack of knowing the root/history of the business. A good example is how Disney world recruit and trains their staff, after passing the first phase the second is enrolling at university of Disney land where they undergo forty-hour apprenticeship programme, employee learn about the history and philosophy of Disneyland, and the regulation and procedures that govern work. The way Disney recruits is essential to keep hold of the business ethics and culture. OK but make sure the TMA maintains focus on the set question. Another example by Drennan (1992), who proposed 12 key factor that shape the culture of the business some of these are: The influence of a dominant leader-the vision, management style and personality of the founder or leader in a business often has a significant influence on the value that the business tries to promote The history of the business – how things has always been done The customers of the business who are they and what they expect The reward system and the measurement of performance c) These factor (above) could be useful to you to address your business problems vague and general in the future if put in place other suggestions are: Practices: These are the rites, ritual and ceremonies of the business. These can take many forms, and would include the annual office party, employees and inner site completion (what does this mean? ). (as mentioned before) Physical form: these include location, open plan or individual plan or individual office. Not relevant in a restaurant. Communication: Stories of notable events in the past tend to become part of the culture of the business and can influence behaviour explain how this relates to the case. A common language: jargon is common to many business. It is a convenient short hand form of communication, but is also effect behaviour. Disney employees are â€Å"cast crew† while McDonalds employee are â€Å"crew Members†. You have to be careful to hold on to the facts of the case, and not to go off at a tangent. Part 2 One of topics I found interesting through reading and taking part in discussion (book1 TMA01 Activity 1. 3) through TGF, which was the concept of business culture whether a business culture can be changed. At first I thought how a culture integrates in a business metaphorically and the more I read and researched the more I understood the big role it plays in a successful business. Many cultural element of a business is not obvious, but there has been attempts in the academic literature to develop definition and identify influencing factors. It is possible to see, or feel, that one business is different from another, and that this involves more than just how it present itself to the outside world.. During our discussion on whether a business culture can be changed, I felt that as human we have to adapt to new cultures to understand each other so for a business is imperative for changes to be put in place to modernise the business culture where needed to evolve the business. Some key factors influencing culture are: Which industry or sector he business is in, and how much and what type of competition it faces The procedures and policies within the business – ever-evolving, but often a good indicator of underlying values. The reward system and the measurement of performance Good summary Where is your references list? Where is your word count? MARKING GRID Part I Maximum Marks Your Marks Question 1 (a) Identify the problems faced by Lodge Bistro that relate to the study session chosen Explicit identification of the study session chosen20 List of problems106 Why these are problems and how these affect Lodge Bistro1814 Total marks Q1(a)30 20

The Three Dimension of Happiness According to Seligman Essay Example for Free

The Three Dimension of Happiness According to Seligman Essay

Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea

Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Introduction Green tea was originated from China and has been consumed for thousands of years. It was initially used as a natural remedy and in religious ceremonies before it became a beverage. Heavy green tea drinkers like the monks and Japanese have been known to live longer than average people. It is believe that regular consumption of tea is good because it helps to relax ones mind, decrease his need for sleep, and lightens his weight by reducing fat in the body system. These observations have been gradually proven by scientists. Today, several billion cups of green tea are consumed daily by people around the world. It has become one of the most widely consumed drinks and popular even among younger generations who are health conscious. Although the majority of drinkers are Asians, it is gaining popularity in the West as more people hear how beneficial it can be to human health. Many people who used to drink coffee or black tea with milk are now joining the trend of drinking green tea. Those w ho do not enjoy drinking green tea but want its health benefits can take green tea extracts in the form of supplements. Aims for the dissertation A lot of studies and research have been done on green tea extracts and their effects on health the past few decades. While most scientists confirmed the goodness of green tea, some experts expressed concerns about the potential health risks of consuming too much green tea extracts. The objective of this paper is to look at the benefits and drawbacks of consuming green tea. It also attempts to find out whether green tea is really so good and as safe as so many people claim or think it to be. Methodology There are now many books about green tea, websites designed to inform and update visitors on green tea, as well as thousands of scientific articles, research studies and media reports on the health benefits and potential risks. This paper was based on information and data from secondary source, mainly literature review of books, journal articles searched from the Internet database and newspaper reports. Updates from government and official websites were also used. Overall structure This dissertation looks at the history of green tea, its composition, applications and uses. It then discusses the health benefits and potential risks of the green tea extracts, as well as the controversy about some of the health claims. Background There are different varieties of the tea plants and as many as 500 existing species of tea grown in around 50 different countries, with China having the most species than the others. Most tea specialists prefer to cultivate the species Camellia sinensis which almost all green tea comes from. Green teas are made exclusively from the young leaves and buds of the Camellia sinensis plant. This plant is a slow-growing evergreen perennial tree of the genus Camellia, which survives in tropical or sub-tropical rainforest climates and thrives at altitudes of 2,100 meters above sea-level. The two parent strains were originated in Darjeeling, Assam and China. In order to harvest them more easily and conveniently, the trees are kept short as shrubs. There is no uniform grading for green tea. Good quality green tea consists of a leaf and a bud. The eight criteria to determine good green tea are the appearance, shape, colour, completeness, aroma, liquor, flavour and wet leaf. Green tea processing Teas are classified into three major types, depending on how they are processed: green, black and oolong. Green teas are made from unfermented leaves. They are steamed, roasted, or pan-fried almost immediately after being picked. Since there is no time for them to ferment, no chemical change occurred. This is why it tends to be lighter in color and have the delicate green character. Oolong teas are produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a partial fermentation stage before drying. Black teas undergo post-harvest fermentation stage before drying and steaming. As a result of the fermentation and oxidation, many of the components in the tea leaves that are beneficial for health are destroyed during the production of black tea. Green tea is considered better than black tea or oolong tea for health reasons because it does not go through fermentation or oxidation during its production. It is the purest form of all teas. In China, green tea leaves are allowed to dry naturally before they are roasted or pan-fried. Such treatments prevent fermentation and soften the leaves which will then be rolled and twisted to remove additional moisture. The Japanese use a steaming method before rolling, twisting and drying the leaves. Chinas green tea is known to be the most delicate of all with a sweet and mild grassy taste. Some of the best Chinese green tea like fine Dragonwell could result in five or more infusions. The best green teas are those picked during early spring around the time of the Qing Ming Festival. Modern tea masters could list 500 or more green teas which could be plucked and processed slightly differently to give slightly different taste. History of green tea Green tea has been used by people as a healthy and medicinal drink for thousands of years. There are many different stories about how it was first discovered. The most popular one from China dated as far back as 2737 B.C. The Chinese legend described how Shen Nong accidentally discovered the soothing taste of the beverage after a leaf dropped from a tea plant into a pot of boiling water while he was in the garden. He became very interested in the infusion and began to study about its various healing properties. Other stories of tea link it with Zen Buddhism. Whichever is true, there is no doubt that tea was originated from China. Anthropologists have reasons to believe that prehistoric humans living in the area of Yunnan chewed on the leaves of tea trees to increase their alertness when hunting. Fresh green tea leaves were gradually used by people for medicinal properties such as to treat depression, digestive and nervous conditions. During the Han dynasty, tea plants were known to b e grown by monasteries in Sichuan. Some people started to steam tea leaves and then compressed them into cakes. These tea bricks would be baked and hardened so that they could be prevented from spoiling and be kept for a longer time. By the Tang Dynasty, as tea cultivation improved and trade increased, tea drinking became very popular in the upper class. Tea rules and ceremony were developed during this golden age of tea. Gradually, tea was consumed as a common healthy drink for all levels of society in China and Tibet instead of mainly used as a remedy to treat different health complaints for certain groups of people. Around A.D. 780, a book dedicated to tea called Cha Ching (Tea Classics) written by Lu Yu was published. He described in great details how tea was grown, cultivated and processed. He even wrote about the utensils and proper way of tea consumption. It was Lu Yu who transformed the process of tea drinking into a form of art, which would eventually be passed to Japan by monks who travelled around Asia. As the popularity of drinking tea continued to grow in China, a tea culture began to develop in Zen ceremonies and secular society in Japan, where the tea plant was able to adapt very well. The tradition of drinking green tea involves a wide range of green tea and is still an important part of their society. By the 12th century, tea plants were already exported to Japan on a large scale. It was until the 14th century when the culture of drinking tea was first introduced to Europe via the Silk Road and soon spread to other parts of the world. During the 1600s a Chinese ambassador brought tea to Moscow which led to a flourishing tea trade to Russia. The Manchus were in power when China was the most important trading country in the world and tea trade was a monopoly. The Portuguese were the first traders to bring tea to Europe in large scale. China was able to be a sole exporter of tea by keeping the knowledge of tea cultivation technique for a long time. It was the British, eager to learn how to cultivate tea, who uncovered the secret of growing tea outside China in the 1800s. They sent a man to China who disguised himself as a merchant. The seeds he collected in China were brought to India but efforts to cultivate them failed. However, experiments using the Chinese techniques to grow loca l India tea plant were successful. Since the 19th century, the British began to cultivate tea on plantations in the colonies of India and Sri Lanka. It was only then when black tea, mass-produced and sold in packets, became more popular in the rest of the world. Nowadays, the tea plant is cultivated in many countries around the world, with China, Japan, India and Sri Lanka being the greatest producers. About 3.1 million tons of dried tea is produced every year, 20% of which is green tea. Although green tea has been consumed by the Chinese and Japanese for such a long time, its popularity increased only gradually in the West as the health benefits became more widely known. This is because green tea research has been widely conducted only in recent years by scientists. In fact, well-publicized results of research on green tea have been available only since the early 1990s. Green tea is now one of the most popular beverage consumed by people besides water. In some places, brewed tea steeped from carefully harvested green tea leaves of delicately grown tea tree is treated like prized wine or rare coffee. As studies continue to show evidence of its benefits, green tea will continue to be sought after by more and more people everywhere. The use of green tea and its extracts by manufacturers will continue to increase as green teas reputation keeps growing. Green tea components While the history of green tea is long and interesting, its chemistry is complex and studied by scientists only quite recently. To understand more about green tea extracts and their effects on health, it is necessary to look at the composition as well as chemical and biochemical properties of green tea. The composition of green tea leaf is very similar to that of other fresh leaf since green tea, being the most natural form of tea, is made from unfermented leaves from the tea plant. Only a few changes to the enzymes of the leaves occur right after they are plucked from the plant and some new volatile substances are produced when they are dried. The buds and leaves of the tea plant contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and the genetic material necessary for growth and photosynthesis. The main constituents of the leaves are polyphenols, the catechin and catechin-derived antioxidants; caffeine; theobromine; theophylline; and theanine. Other compounds in green tea that affect the human health are fluoride, minerals, vitamins such as B1, B2 and C, and trace elements such as chromium and manganese. Table 1 Mean Composition (%) of Green Tea Compound Green tea* Phenolic compounds** 30 Fibre 26 Proteins 15 Others carbohydrates 7 Lipids 7 Minerals 5 Amino acids 4 Pigments 2 Oxidised phenolic compounds*** 0 *Data referred to dry weight of tea leaves. **Especially flavonoids. ***Especially thearubigins and theaflavins. [Sources: Belitz DH, Grosch W(1997), Qu?mica de los Alimentos. Zaragoza: Acribia] The amount of these ingredients differs according to where the green tea is cultivated and age of the leaves. Young leaves and buds contain more caffeine while older leaves have larger amount of tannin (flavonols).[2] Fresh green tea buds and leaves contain 75-80% water while the polyphenol components make up the remaining 20-25% of solid matter. Careful drying could prevent changes to the active ingredients of the green tea leaves whereas fermentation and oxidation that occur when black tea is processed would cause chemical changes. This leads to the major difference in the effects and taste between black tea and green tea. Green tea extracts are herbal derivatives from green tea leaves which are used or taken orally by people. The extracts can be divided into 4 categories: a) Strong infusions Green tea leaves are processed by soaking in alcohol solution; b) Soft extracts the solution made by strong infusion is concentrated to 20 25%; c) Dry extracts the solution from strong infusion is further concentrated to 40 50% solids and turned into dehydrated extract powder; d) Partly purified extracts techniques such as solvent extraction, column chromatography, membrane extraction and separation are used to acquire more purified derivatives of green tea in order to produce supplements like green tea tablets and capsules. Tea Polyphenols The color of green tea is partly due to chlorophyll and partly due to a kind of naturally occurring compound in it, called polyphenols. These compounds are responsible for the pungency and unique flavor of green tea. They are antioxidants which is a type of phytochemical compounds found in most plants, vegetables and fruits as well as coffee, cocoa, wine and tea. Polyphenols are the most biologically active group among the tea components, with antioxidative, antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects. Exposure to oxygen during enzymatic process reduces polyphenols levels. Green tea has unaltered polyphenols because unlike oolong or black tea, they do not undergo oxidation. Because of this, green tea has the greatest effect on health among all teas. In green tea, polyphenols are in the form of flavonoids. The main flavonoids present in green tea are the green tea catechins (GTC) which comprise four major derivatives: (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (represents approximately 59% of the total of catechins); (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC) (19% approximately); (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (13.6% approximately); and (-)-epicatechin (EC) (6.4% approximately). Catachins have a carbon structure C6-C3-C6 composed of two aromatic rings. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] The catechin content of green tea depends on how the leaves are processed, the geographical location and growing conditions (e.g. soil, climate, agriculture, practices and fertilizers), the type of green tea and the infusion (e.g. brew time, temperature) Green tea polyphenols are important for their ability to halt the damaging effects of oxidation which is a process of molecular DNA damage caused by the formation of toxic molecules called free radicals that develop in the human body. Individual catechins have different antioxidative and health properties. Other compounds found in different plants also have antioxidative action. Catechins found only in green tea however have been proved to be more effective than many well-known antioxidants. Professor Catherine Rice-Evans of the Guys Hospital in London carried out tests and determined that green tea catechins have greater effects as antioxidants than the same quantity of Vitamin C and E, or beta-carotene. She also ranked the catechins according to the proportion of their presence in green tea. According to her study, EGCG was the most active of the catechins, responsible for 32% of the antioxidant property of green tea. The order from most antioxidative to least antioxidative are: 1) EGCG 2) EGC 3) ECG and 4) EC. Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant belonging to the family of chemicals called methylxanthines. It can be found in more than sixty different plants. [8] Most of them have been utilized as foods or beverages by people since ancient times. Caffeine is a trimethyl derivative of purine 2,6-diol. It was first discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820 and later isolated from tea by Nakabayashi. Caffeine content is usually 2.5-4.5% in dry green tea leaves. The amount of caffeine in green tea drink is about 1/10 to 1/5 of that in brewed coffee. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] Caffeine has a strong effect on the brain and muscles which is why drinker will experience a mental boost shortly after drinking tea. The amount of caffeine varies among different types of tea. Black tea has the greatest amount whereas green tea contains only one-third the caffeine of black tea. It has been shown in many studies that caffeine improves cognitive performance and certain aspect of memory. Besides mental health, caffeine may also helps to enhance ones emotional health, for example, making the drinker feel energized and motivated to work. Caffeine is known to be a cardiac stimulant and a diuretic. It also stimulates the cerebral cortex, causing excitation in the central nervous system. However, it may have adverse effects on some people and its intake could cause health risks instead of benefits. Because of that, this component is often removed and excluded when green tea is extracted for applications such as health supplements. Nutrients Besides polyphenols and caffeine, the two most commonly known components, green tea also actually contains many nutrients, including different kinds of vitamins and inorganic compounds. Vitamins Commercial green tea leaves contain about 280mg of Vitamin C (VC, ascorbic acid) per 100g of dried leaves. The content of Vitamin C in green tea can be ten times that in black tea because the vitamin is partly destroyed during fermentation, which green tea does not undergo. Other vitamins found in green tea in different amounts are Vitamin B2, Vitamin D, Vitamin K, and carotenoids. Inorganic elements There are many minerals in green tea such as calcium, iron, copper, sodium, zinc and potassium. Green tea can also be a rich source of selenium if it is grown in a soil rich in this essential mineral. Another important mineral found in green tea is manganese which is used by the body in digesting protein as well as maintaining healthy bones and connective tissue. Green tea also contains a lot of fluoride the mineral known for fighting dental cavities. The amounts of aluminum in green tea leaves are higher than any other plants. Fortunately, the tea plant is able to biochemically neutralize the toxicity of aluminum, which exists mainly in a chelate form, which is less absorbable than the ionic form, with less potential to cause adverse effect on health. Experiments on animals and people also confirm that tea catechins can prevent the damage caused by accumulation of aluminum in the bones. Some specific inorganic compounds in the tea plant are aluminum, fluorine, and manganese. Table 2 Inorganic Elements and their contents in green tea leaves (per 100g dried leaves) ElementContent ElementContent N3.5 7.1   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Al420 3,500   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   P0.2 0.7   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   As0.20 0.42   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   K1.6 2.5   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Ba1.3 5.1   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ca0.12 0.57   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Br7.8 25.0   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mg0.12 0.30   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   F17 260   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   S0.24 0.48   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Na20 33   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Fe100 200   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ni1.3 5.9   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mn500 3,000   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Pb2.2 6.3   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Cu15 20   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Rb8 44   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mo0.4 0.7   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Sc0.2   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   B20 30   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Se1.0 1.8   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   [Source: Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, 1991] Other Components Amino Acids The content of total nitrogen in green tea extracts ranges from 4.5 to 6%. Half of that are free amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. The amount of amino acids in tea leaves harvested during spring time is larger than that during other seasons. Green tea contains some common amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, tyrosine etc. as well as an amino acid that is unique to it: theanine. Green tea has four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. There is in fact a fifth taste known as unami which is contributed by the amino acid l-theanine. This constituent was only identified in 1949, by a Japanese who discovered that theanine makes up about 50% of the free amino acids present in tea. Young tea buds harvested in early spring contain a lot more theanine than tea leaves harvested later in the year because the theanine are converted into catechins as the leaves mature. Green tea experts rate the unami taste most highly and consider it to be the most important factor in determining the quality of the tea. High grade green tea is more soothing to drink than lower grade ones because the l-theanine can decaffeinates tea naturally, making it taste less bitter. Scientific studies using electroencephalography show that if 8 times more theanine is present than caffeine, the effect of caffeine will be blunted. Studies have also shown that theanine increases production of d opamine in the brain, giving the drinker the sense of alertness while feeling relaxed. Aromatic Oils Aromatic oils play a major role in determining the fragrance of green tea. The oils accumulate as the tea leaf grows and evaporate during and after harvest of the leaf. For green tea, some aromatic oils remain in the final tea product, contributing to the taste of the tea. About 500 different aromatic oils have been identified in tea leaves. Carbohydrates Total carbohydrates in green tea leaves are about 40%, one third of which is cellulosic fiber. Starch is also contained in green tea. Tea leaves harvested in the morning when there is less starch are considered to be better in quality. Lipids Green tea leaves has an average of 4% oil by weight. The seeds of tea also contain oil of around 20-40% by weight. The oil is nondrying and has a solidifying temperature of -5 to + 15?C.>/p> Health Benefits Since the 1990s, scientists in different countries, particularly Japan, have almost suggested that every system of the body can be benefited by green tea consumption. The polyphenols are known to reduce the risk of cancer before genetic mutations occur by neutralizing free radicals, prevent cardiovascular disease by preventing LDL cholesterol from changes that promote heart disease, and protect the body from various other illnesses. As more people around the world hear about these benefits, it has become increasingly popular for those who want a healthy life style to drink green tea as beverage or take green tea extracts as supplements. Antioxidant Effects Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that could damage the body and lead to many diseases if left alone. They take an electron form another molecule, turning it into another electron-deficient free radical that can take an electron from a third molecule and so on, leading to a chain reaction. The human body has a number of antioxidant molecules that help to defend it against degenerative diseases, but sometimes they may be overwhelmed by the free radicals. Antioxidants are substances that patrol the body and quench free radical reactions. [8] The antioxidant property of green tea extract is the most basic of all the health benefits of green tea. Many plant foods provide an abundant source of antioxidant nutrients. Polyphenols in green tea are among the most effective. Gramza Anna et al. examined the antioxidative activity of several biologically active components from plants to find which are safe for people and showing high antioxidant activities if added to food with lipids such as lard. Results show that the 1000ppm green tea ethanol extract inhibited the oxidation process most strongly among samples of green and black tea leaves. It was observed that the antioxidant activity was higher in tea extracts containing high levels of ECG, EC and C. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) analysed nearly 400 foods for their EGCG content and published a report in 2007. It showed that regular green tea contains the highest concentration of antioxidants, followed by decaffeinated green tea, flavored green tea and instant or bottled green tea. That USDA study also showed why green tea is the best way to ingest antioxidants. One gram of green tea steeped in 100 millimeters of water yields 127 milligrams of catechins whereas 100 grams of dark chocolate contains only 54 milligrams, blueberries 52 milligrams and black grapes just 22 milligrams. Since tea contains higher levels of antioxidants than many fruits and vegetables, green tea consumption can protect the cells in the human body from damage caused by free radicals. Flavonoids, act as antioxidants, through four possible mechanisms: 1) as reducing agents, disarming free radicals. 2) by donating hydrogen molecules to prevent the formation of free radicals. 3) by quenching singlet oxygen that would otherwise act as a free radical in the body. 4) by binding with metals that could otherwise initiate the creation of free radicals. Among the four polyphenols in green tea, EGCG has been found to be particularly effective as an antioxidant. Researchers from Rutgers University concluded that the strong antioxidant activities of green tea are mainly due to the higher content of EGCG after comparing the antioxidant effect of various polyphenols in green tea and oolong tea. [23] Studies of the effects of tea consumption in people confirm evident that green tea is the most effective scavenger of free radicals among the different types of tea. In one study, five adults each drank two cups of green tea while five others drank the same amount of black tea. Both green and black teas improve the antioxidant capability of the blood, but green tea was found to be six times more powerful. Scientists also found that fresh green tea extracts is a better scavenger of singlet oxygen than stale green tea extract. Green tea polyphenols are also effective in quenching other free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus is known to affect the structure and function of myocardium, causing increased collagen in the heart and reducing cardiac function. Babu and his team from India found that the antioxidant enzymes of diabetic rats are not sufficient and efficient enough to reduce the oxidative stress caused by hyperglycemia. In 2006, their investigation showed that green tea treatment is effective in controlling the antioxidant system in the heart and aorta by alleviating lipid peroxidation. In 2007, their studies suggested that administration of green tea extract may improve myocardial collagen changes in diabetic rats. They believe that the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects of green tea catechins may be responsible and concluded green tea may provide a therapeutic option for the treatment of cardiovascular complications in diabetes. HIV The majority of the worlds 33 million HIV cases were infected through heterosexual sex with 96% of new infections occurring in developing countries. Therefore ways to fight the spread of HIV in poor countries are extremely necessary. Previously, scientists have carried out lab tests and reported that EGCG may prevent HIV from binding to the T-cells in the immune systems protecting them from HIVs damage. Although they knew that EGCG inhibited HIV in test tubes, they did not know if the findings would be useful beyond the lab. [26] Just recently, researchers in Germany have found a practical way to use EGCG to help prevent the spreading of AIDS. The researchers found that EGCG was capable of neutralizing a protein in sperm that served as a vector for the transmission of the virus that causes AIDS during sex. They say that the use of green tea in vaginal creams could provide a simple and affordable way to reduce cases of HIV infection. Neuroprotective Effects Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons disease is a progressive, degenerative disorder of the central nervous system resulting from loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. A research team led by Professor Zhao affiliated to the Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Biophysics using an animal model of Parkinsons disease discovered that green tea polyphenols can protect dopamine neurons. He hopes that green tea polyphenols may eventually be developed into a safe drug for Parkinsons disease in humans. Alzheimers Disease In an article published by the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from University of South Florida reported that EGCG prevented Alzheimers-like damage in the brain of mice genetically programmed to develop the neurodegenerative disease process. They work by decreasing production of the Alzheimers-related protein called beta-amyloid which causes nerve damage and memory loss when accumulated abnormally in the brain. The researchers think that a new generation of dietary supplements containing pure EGCG might be beneficial for treating Altheimers disease. Huntingtons Disease Like Alzheimers and Parkinsons, Huntingtons disease is also a type of neurodegenerative disease caused by protein misfolding characterized by jerky and uncontrolled movements. Mutant proteins are accumulated in the brain of sufferers and become toxic to the nerve cells in the brain. A res Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Introduction Green tea was originated from China and has been consumed for thousands of years. It was initially used as a natural remedy and in religious ceremonies before it became a beverage. Heavy green tea drinkers like the monks and Japanese have been known to live longer than average people. It is believe that regular consumption of tea is good because it helps to relax ones mind, decrease his need for sleep, and lightens his weight by reducing fat in the body system. These observations have been gradually proven by scientists. Today, several billion cups of green tea are consumed daily by people around the world. It has become one of the most widely consumed drinks and popular even among younger generations who are health conscious. Although the majority of drinkers are Asians, it is gaining popularity in the West as more people hear how beneficial it can be to human health. Many people who used to drink coffee or black tea with milk are now joining the trend of drinking green tea. Those w ho do not enjoy drinking green tea but want its health benefits can take green tea extracts in the form of supplements. Aims for the dissertation A lot of studies and research have been done on green tea extracts and their effects on health the past few decades. While most scientists confirmed the goodness of green tea, some experts expressed concerns about the potential health risks of consuming too much green tea extracts. The objective of this paper is to look at the benefits and drawbacks of consuming green tea. It also attempts to find out whether green tea is really so good and as safe as so many people claim or think it to be. Methodology There are now many books about green tea, websites designed to inform and update visitors on green tea, as well as thousands of scientific articles, research studies and media reports on the health benefits and potential risks. This paper was based on information and data from secondary source, mainly literature review of books, journal articles searched from the Internet database and newspaper reports. Updates from government and official websites were also used. Overall structure This dissertation looks at the history of green tea, its composition, applications and uses. It then discusses the health benefits and potential risks of the green tea extracts, as well as the controversy about some of the health claims. Background There are different varieties of the tea plants and as many as 500 existing species of tea grown in around 50 different countries, with China having the most species than the others. Most tea specialists prefer to cultivate the species Camellia sinensis which almost all green tea comes from. Green teas are made exclusively from the young leaves and buds of the Camellia sinensis plant. This plant is a slow-growing evergreen perennial tree of the genus Camellia, which survives in tropical or sub-tropical rainforest climates and thrives at altitudes of 2,100 meters above sea-level. The two parent strains were originated in Darjeeling, Assam and China. In order to harvest them more easily and conveniently, the trees are kept short as shrubs. There is no uniform grading for green tea. Good quality green tea consists of a leaf and a bud. The eight criteria to determine good green tea are the appearance, shape, colour, completeness, aroma, liquor, flavour and wet leaf. Green tea processing Teas are classified into three major types, depending on how they are processed: green, black and oolong. Green teas are made from unfermented leaves. They are steamed, roasted, or pan-fried almost immediately after being picked. Since there is no time for them to ferment, no chemical change occurred. This is why it tends to be lighter in color and have the delicate green character. Oolong teas are produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a partial fermentation stage before drying. Black teas undergo post-harvest fermentation stage before drying and steaming. As a result of the fermentation and oxidation, many of the components in the tea leaves that are beneficial for health are destroyed during the production of black tea. Green tea is considered better than black tea or oolong tea for health reasons because it does not go through fermentation or oxidation during its production. It is the purest form of all teas. In China, green tea leaves are allowed to dry naturally before they are roasted or pan-fried. Such treatments prevent fermentation and soften the leaves which will then be rolled and twisted to remove additional moisture. The Japanese use a steaming method before rolling, twisting and drying the leaves. Chinas green tea is known to be the most delicate of all with a sweet and mild grassy taste. Some of the best Chinese green tea like fine Dragonwell could result in five or more infusions. The best green teas are those picked during early spring around the time of the Qing Ming Festival. Modern tea masters could list 500 or more green teas which could be plucked and processed slightly differently to give slightly different taste. History of green tea Green tea has been used by people as a healthy and medicinal drink for thousands of years. There are many different stories about how it was first discovered. The most popular one from China dated as far back as 2737 B.C. The Chinese legend described how Shen Nong accidentally discovered the soothing taste of the beverage after a leaf dropped from a tea plant into a pot of boiling water while he was in the garden. He became very interested in the infusion and began to study about its various healing properties. Other stories of tea link it with Zen Buddhism. Whichever is true, there is no doubt that tea was originated from China. Anthropologists have reasons to believe that prehistoric humans living in the area of Yunnan chewed on the leaves of tea trees to increase their alertness when hunting. Fresh green tea leaves were gradually used by people for medicinal properties such as to treat depression, digestive and nervous conditions. During the Han dynasty, tea plants were known to b e grown by monasteries in Sichuan. Some people started to steam tea leaves and then compressed them into cakes. These tea bricks would be baked and hardened so that they could be prevented from spoiling and be kept for a longer time. By the Tang Dynasty, as tea cultivation improved and trade increased, tea drinking became very popular in the upper class. Tea rules and ceremony were developed during this golden age of tea. Gradually, tea was consumed as a common healthy drink for all levels of society in China and Tibet instead of mainly used as a remedy to treat different health complaints for certain groups of people. Around A.D. 780, a book dedicated to tea called Cha Ching (Tea Classics) written by Lu Yu was published. He described in great details how tea was grown, cultivated and processed. He even wrote about the utensils and proper way of tea consumption. It was Lu Yu who transformed the process of tea drinking into a form of art, which would eventually be passed to Japan by monks who travelled around Asia. As the popularity of drinking tea continued to grow in China, a tea culture began to develop in Zen ceremonies and secular society in Japan, where the tea plant was able to adapt very well. The tradition of drinking green tea involves a wide range of green tea and is still an important part of their society. By the 12th century, tea plants were already exported to Japan on a large scale. It was until the 14th century when the culture of drinking tea was first introduced to Europe via the Silk Road and soon spread to other parts of the world. During the 1600s a Chinese ambassador brought tea to Moscow which led to a flourishing tea trade to Russia. The Manchus were in power when China was the most important trading country in the world and tea trade was a monopoly. The Portuguese were the first traders to bring tea to Europe in large scale. China was able to be a sole exporter of tea by keeping the knowledge of tea cultivation technique for a long time. It was the British, eager to learn how to cultivate tea, who uncovered the secret of growing tea outside China in the 1800s. They sent a man to China who disguised himself as a merchant. The seeds he collected in China were brought to India but efforts to cultivate them failed. However, experiments using the Chinese techniques to grow loca l India tea plant were successful. Since the 19th century, the British began to cultivate tea on plantations in the colonies of India and Sri Lanka. It was only then when black tea, mass-produced and sold in packets, became more popular in the rest of the world. Nowadays, the tea plant is cultivated in many countries around the world, with China, Japan, India and Sri Lanka being the greatest producers. About 3.1 million tons of dried tea is produced every year, 20% of which is green tea. Although green tea has been consumed by the Chinese and Japanese for such a long time, its popularity increased only gradually in the West as the health benefits became more widely known. This is because green tea research has been widely conducted only in recent years by scientists. In fact, well-publicized results of research on green tea have been available only since the early 1990s. Green tea is now one of the most popular beverage consumed by people besides water. In some places, brewed tea steeped from carefully harvested green tea leaves of delicately grown tea tree is treated like prized wine or rare coffee. As studies continue to show evidence of its benefits, green tea will continue to be sought after by more and more people everywhere. The use of green tea and its extracts by manufacturers will continue to increase as green teas reputation keeps growing. Green tea components While the history of green tea is long and interesting, its chemistry is complex and studied by scientists only quite recently. To understand more about green tea extracts and their effects on health, it is necessary to look at the composition as well as chemical and biochemical properties of green tea. The composition of green tea leaf is very similar to that of other fresh leaf since green tea, being the most natural form of tea, is made from unfermented leaves from the tea plant. Only a few changes to the enzymes of the leaves occur right after they are plucked from the plant and some new volatile substances are produced when they are dried. The buds and leaves of the tea plant contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and the genetic material necessary for growth and photosynthesis. The main constituents of the leaves are polyphenols, the catechin and catechin-derived antioxidants; caffeine; theobromine; theophylline; and theanine. Other compounds in green tea that affect the human health are fluoride, minerals, vitamins such as B1, B2 and C, and trace elements such as chromium and manganese. Table 1 Mean Composition (%) of Green Tea Compound Green tea* Phenolic compounds** 30 Fibre 26 Proteins 15 Others carbohydrates 7 Lipids 7 Minerals 5 Amino acids 4 Pigments 2 Oxidised phenolic compounds*** 0 *Data referred to dry weight of tea leaves. **Especially flavonoids. ***Especially thearubigins and theaflavins. [Sources: Belitz DH, Grosch W(1997), Qu?mica de los Alimentos. Zaragoza: Acribia] The amount of these ingredients differs according to where the green tea is cultivated and age of the leaves. Young leaves and buds contain more caffeine while older leaves have larger amount of tannin (flavonols).[2] Fresh green tea buds and leaves contain 75-80% water while the polyphenol components make up the remaining 20-25% of solid matter. Careful drying could prevent changes to the active ingredients of the green tea leaves whereas fermentation and oxidation that occur when black tea is processed would cause chemical changes. This leads to the major difference in the effects and taste between black tea and green tea. Green tea extracts are herbal derivatives from green tea leaves which are used or taken orally by people. The extracts can be divided into 4 categories: a) Strong infusions Green tea leaves are processed by soaking in alcohol solution; b) Soft extracts the solution made by strong infusion is concentrated to 20 25%; c) Dry extracts the solution from strong infusion is further concentrated to 40 50% solids and turned into dehydrated extract powder; d) Partly purified extracts techniques such as solvent extraction, column chromatography, membrane extraction and separation are used to acquire more purified derivatives of green tea in order to produce supplements like green tea tablets and capsules. Tea Polyphenols The color of green tea is partly due to chlorophyll and partly due to a kind of naturally occurring compound in it, called polyphenols. These compounds are responsible for the pungency and unique flavor of green tea. They are antioxidants which is a type of phytochemical compounds found in most plants, vegetables and fruits as well as coffee, cocoa, wine and tea. Polyphenols are the most biologically active group among the tea components, with antioxidative, antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects. Exposure to oxygen during enzymatic process reduces polyphenols levels. Green tea has unaltered polyphenols because unlike oolong or black tea, they do not undergo oxidation. Because of this, green tea has the greatest effect on health among all teas. In green tea, polyphenols are in the form of flavonoids. The main flavonoids present in green tea are the green tea catechins (GTC) which comprise four major derivatives: (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (represents approximately 59% of the total of catechins); (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC) (19% approximately); (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (13.6% approximately); and (-)-epicatechin (EC) (6.4% approximately). Catachins have a carbon structure C6-C3-C6 composed of two aromatic rings. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] The catechin content of green tea depends on how the leaves are processed, the geographical location and growing conditions (e.g. soil, climate, agriculture, practices and fertilizers), the type of green tea and the infusion (e.g. brew time, temperature) Green tea polyphenols are important for their ability to halt the damaging effects of oxidation which is a process of molecular DNA damage caused by the formation of toxic molecules called free radicals that develop in the human body. Individual catechins have different antioxidative and health properties. Other compounds found in different plants also have antioxidative action. Catechins found only in green tea however have been proved to be more effective than many well-known antioxidants. Professor Catherine Rice-Evans of the Guys Hospital in London carried out tests and determined that green tea catechins have greater effects as antioxidants than the same quantity of Vitamin C and E, or beta-carotene. She also ranked the catechins according to the proportion of their presence in green tea. According to her study, EGCG was the most active of the catechins, responsible for 32% of the antioxidant property of green tea. The order from most antioxidative to least antioxidative are: 1) EGCG 2) EGC 3) ECG and 4) EC. Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant belonging to the family of chemicals called methylxanthines. It can be found in more than sixty different plants. [8] Most of them have been utilized as foods or beverages by people since ancient times. Caffeine is a trimethyl derivative of purine 2,6-diol. It was first discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820 and later isolated from tea by Nakabayashi. Caffeine content is usually 2.5-4.5% in dry green tea leaves. The amount of caffeine in green tea drink is about 1/10 to 1/5 of that in brewed coffee. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] Caffeine has a strong effect on the brain and muscles which is why drinker will experience a mental boost shortly after drinking tea. The amount of caffeine varies among different types of tea. Black tea has the greatest amount whereas green tea contains only one-third the caffeine of black tea. It has been shown in many studies that caffeine improves cognitive performance and certain aspect of memory. Besides mental health, caffeine may also helps to enhance ones emotional health, for example, making the drinker feel energized and motivated to work. Caffeine is known to be a cardiac stimulant and a diuretic. It also stimulates the cerebral cortex, causing excitation in the central nervous system. However, it may have adverse effects on some people and its intake could cause health risks instead of benefits. Because of that, this component is often removed and excluded when green tea is extracted for applications such as health supplements. Nutrients Besides polyphenols and caffeine, the two most commonly known components, green tea also actually contains many nutrients, including different kinds of vitamins and inorganic compounds. Vitamins Commercial green tea leaves contain about 280mg of Vitamin C (VC, ascorbic acid) per 100g of dried leaves. The content of Vitamin C in green tea can be ten times that in black tea because the vitamin is partly destroyed during fermentation, which green tea does not undergo. Other vitamins found in green tea in different amounts are Vitamin B2, Vitamin D, Vitamin K, and carotenoids. Inorganic elements There are many minerals in green tea such as calcium, iron, copper, sodium, zinc and potassium. Green tea can also be a rich source of selenium if it is grown in a soil rich in this essential mineral. Another important mineral found in green tea is manganese which is used by the body in digesting protein as well as maintaining healthy bones and connective tissue. Green tea also contains a lot of fluoride the mineral known for fighting dental cavities. The amounts of aluminum in green tea leaves are higher than any other plants. Fortunately, the tea plant is able to biochemically neutralize the toxicity of aluminum, which exists mainly in a chelate form, which is less absorbable than the ionic form, with less potential to cause adverse effect on health. Experiments on animals and people also confirm that tea catechins can prevent the damage caused by accumulation of aluminum in the bones. Some specific inorganic compounds in the tea plant are aluminum, fluorine, and manganese. Table 2 Inorganic Elements and their contents in green tea leaves (per 100g dried leaves) ElementContent ElementContent N3.5 7.1   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Al420 3,500   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   P0.2 0.7   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   As0.20 0.42   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   K1.6 2.5   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Ba1.3 5.1   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ca0.12 0.57   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Br7.8 25.0   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mg0.12 0.30   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   F17 260   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   S0.24 0.48   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Na20 33   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Fe100 200   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ni1.3 5.9   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mn500 3,000   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Pb2.2 6.3   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Cu15 20   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Rb8 44   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mo0.4 0.7   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Sc0.2   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   B20 30   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Se1.0 1.8   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   [Source: Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, 1991] Other Components Amino Acids The content of total nitrogen in green tea extracts ranges from 4.5 to 6%. Half of that are free amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. The amount of amino acids in tea leaves harvested during spring time is larger than that during other seasons. Green tea contains some common amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, tyrosine etc. as well as an amino acid that is unique to it: theanine. Green tea has four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. There is in fact a fifth taste known as unami which is contributed by the amino acid l-theanine. This constituent was only identified in 1949, by a Japanese who discovered that theanine makes up about 50% of the free amino acids present in tea. Young tea buds harvested in early spring contain a lot more theanine than tea leaves harvested later in the year because the theanine are converted into catechins as the leaves mature. Green tea experts rate the unami taste most highly and consider it to be the most important factor in determining the quality of the tea. High grade green tea is more soothing to drink than lower grade ones because the l-theanine can decaffeinates tea naturally, making it taste less bitter. Scientific studies using electroencephalography show that if 8 times more theanine is present than caffeine, the effect of caffeine will be blunted. Studies have also shown that theanine increases production of d opamine in the brain, giving the drinker the sense of alertness while feeling relaxed. Aromatic Oils Aromatic oils play a major role in determining the fragrance of green tea. The oils accumulate as the tea leaf grows and evaporate during and after harvest of the leaf. For green tea, some aromatic oils remain in the final tea product, contributing to the taste of the tea. About 500 different aromatic oils have been identified in tea leaves. Carbohydrates Total carbohydrates in green tea leaves are about 40%, one third of which is cellulosic fiber. Starch is also contained in green tea. Tea leaves harvested in the morning when there is less starch are considered to be better in quality. Lipids Green tea leaves has an average of 4% oil by weight. The seeds of tea also contain oil of around 20-40% by weight. The oil is nondrying and has a solidifying temperature of -5 to + 15?C.>/p> Health Benefits Since the 1990s, scientists in different countries, particularly Japan, have almost suggested that every system of the body can be benefited by green tea consumption. The polyphenols are known to reduce the risk of cancer before genetic mutations occur by neutralizing free radicals, prevent cardiovascular disease by preventing LDL cholesterol from changes that promote heart disease, and protect the body from various other illnesses. As more people around the world hear about these benefits, it has become increasingly popular for those who want a healthy life style to drink green tea as beverage or take green tea extracts as supplements. Antioxidant Effects Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that could damage the body and lead to many diseases if left alone. They take an electron form another molecule, turning it into another electron-deficient free radical that can take an electron from a third molecule and so on, leading to a chain reaction. The human body has a number of antioxidant molecules that help to defend it against degenerative diseases, but sometimes they may be overwhelmed by the free radicals. Antioxidants are substances that patrol the body and quench free radical reactions. [8] The antioxidant property of green tea extract is the most basic of all the health benefits of green tea. Many plant foods provide an abundant source of antioxidant nutrients. Polyphenols in green tea are among the most effective. Gramza Anna et al. examined the antioxidative activity of several biologically active components from plants to find which are safe for people and showing high antioxidant activities if added to food with lipids such as lard. Results show that the 1000ppm green tea ethanol extract inhibited the oxidation process most strongly among samples of green and black tea leaves. It was observed that the antioxidant activity was higher in tea extracts containing high levels of ECG, EC and C. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) analysed nearly 400 foods for their EGCG content and published a report in 2007. It showed that regular green tea contains the highest concentration of antioxidants, followed by decaffeinated green tea, flavored green tea and instant or bottled green tea. That USDA study also showed why green tea is the best way to ingest antioxidants. One gram of green tea steeped in 100 millimeters of water yields 127 milligrams of catechins whereas 100 grams of dark chocolate contains only 54 milligrams, blueberries 52 milligrams and black grapes just 22 milligrams. Since tea contains higher levels of antioxidants than many fruits and vegetables, green tea consumption can protect the cells in the human body from damage caused by free radicals. Flavonoids, act as antioxidants, through four possible mechanisms: 1) as reducing agents, disarming free radicals. 2) by donating hydrogen molecules to prevent the formation of free radicals. 3) by quenching singlet oxygen that would otherwise act as a free radical in the body. 4) by binding with metals that could otherwise initiate the creation of free radicals. Among the four polyphenols in green tea, EGCG has been found to be particularly effective as an antioxidant. Researchers from Rutgers University concluded that the strong antioxidant activities of green tea are mainly due to the higher content of EGCG after comparing the antioxidant effect of various polyphenols in green tea and oolong tea. [23] Studies of the effects of tea consumption in people confirm evident that green tea is the most effective scavenger of free radicals among the different types of tea. In one study, five adults each drank two cups of green tea while five others drank the same amount of black tea. Both green and black teas improve the antioxidant capability of the blood, but green tea was found to be six times more powerful. Scientists also found that fresh green tea extracts is a better scavenger of singlet oxygen than stale green tea extract. Green tea polyphenols are also effective in quenching other free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus is known to affect the structure and function of myocardium, causing increased collagen in the heart and reducing cardiac function. Babu and his team from India found that the antioxidant enzymes of diabetic rats are not sufficient and efficient enough to reduce the oxidative stress caused by hyperglycemia. In 2006, their investigation showed that green tea treatment is effective in controlling the antioxidant system in the heart and aorta by alleviating lipid peroxidation. In 2007, their studies suggested that administration of green tea extract may improve myocardial collagen changes in diabetic rats. They believe that the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects of green tea catechins may be responsible and concluded green tea may provide a therapeutic option for the treatment of cardiovascular complications in diabetes. HIV The majority of the worlds 33 million HIV cases were infected through heterosexual sex with 96% of new infections occurring in developing countries. Therefore ways to fight the spread of HIV in poor countries are extremely necessary. Previously, scientists have carried out lab tests and reported that EGCG may prevent HIV from binding to the T-cells in the immune systems protecting them from HIVs damage. Although they knew that EGCG inhibited HIV in test tubes, they did not know if the findings would be useful beyond the lab. [26] Just recently, researchers in Germany have found a practical way to use EGCG to help prevent the spreading of AIDS. The researchers found that EGCG was capable of neutralizing a protein in sperm that served as a vector for the transmission of the virus that causes AIDS during sex. They say that the use of green tea in vaginal creams could provide a simple and affordable way to reduce cases of HIV infection. Neuroprotective Effects Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons disease is a progressive, degenerative disorder of the central nervous system resulting from loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. A research team led by Professor Zhao affiliated to the Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Biophysics using an animal model of Parkinsons disease discovered that green tea polyphenols can protect dopamine neurons. He hopes that green tea polyphenols may eventually be developed into a safe drug for Parkinsons disease in humans. Alzheimers Disease In an article published by the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from University of South Florida reported that EGCG prevented Alzheimers-like damage in the brain of mice genetically programmed to develop the neurodegenerative disease process. They work by decreasing production of the Alzheimers-related protein called beta-amyloid which causes nerve damage and memory loss when accumulated abnormally in the brain. The researchers think that a new generation of dietary supplements containing pure EGCG might be beneficial for treating Altheimers disease. Huntingtons Disease Like Alzheimers and Parkinsons, Huntingtons disease is also a type of neurodegenerative disease caused by protein misfolding characterized by jerky and uncontrolled movements. Mutant proteins are accumulated in the brain of sufferers and become toxic to the nerve cells in the brain. A res

Essay --

The term forensic is used often among television crime dramas but what is it? Forensic, as defined by Oxford Dictionary of English, is â€Å"relating to or denoting the application of scientific methods and techniques to the investigation of crime (Stevenson). This science has led to the capture of many criminals. DNA testing has been a large part of this forensic science, however forensics played a large role prior to DNA testing being developed. Fingerprinting, blood typing, and trace evidence were three of the forensic tests in use before DNA testing that helped identify a suspect. Fingerprinting is a technique that has been in use for a long time. In 1880, a Scottish doctor, Henry Faulds, first suggested to the British that fingerprints could be used in criminal investigations. This suggestion had merit because every person has a unique set of fingerprints. The concept was then incorporated into the law system. Fingerprints are, in fact, most often used in prosecutions. They are to help the prosecutors identify a suspect and to place them at the scene of a crime (â€Å"Fingerprints† 410-411). Fingerprints can be left on almost any surface, including smooth ones. The combination of the friction ridges, or the raised grooves on the fingertips, and sweat that gathers there is what causes the fingerprint to leave a trace (Bergman and Berman-Barrett). Fingerprinting is widely used today and I believe it still plays a large and crucial role in criminal investigations. Blood Typing, or Serology, is another method of identification used in forensics. This type of science is focused on the study of Antigens in the blood and how specific antibodies places blood into separate groups. The blood groups most commonly used in this scie... ...croscopically match fibers from carpet to a specific car is fascinating and intriguing. Trace evidence also seems to be easily left behind, where as fingerprints can be concealed with rubber gloves and blood is not always left at crime scenes. Forensic science consists of many different components that have helped solve many crimes. Fingerprinting can be used to place criminals at scenes and to identify suspects. Serology is a science that has become outdated but helped prosecutors narrow down suspects. It ultimately led to the development of DNA testing, the culprit for its demise. Edmund Locard was the innovator behind the concept of trace evidence and how particles can be compared microscopically to help in crime solving. All of these aspects of forensics potentially led to the development of DNA testing and laid the groundwork for future expansion.

Bank One and LaSalle Bank Comparison Essay -- essays research papers

Bank One   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1929, Commercial National and City National Bank of Commerce of Columbus, Ohio, merged to form City National Bank and Trust. City National offered the first Visa credit card outside of California in 1966; it also created the first drive-up bank, and was one of the first banks to use ATMs. A holding company called First Bank Group of Ohio was formed and it became Bank One in 1979. As interstate barriers to banking fell, the bank moved into Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan and Wisconsin. The First National Bank of Chicago and Bank One merged on October 2, 1998. The merger between Bank One Corporation and First Chicago NBD Corporation created what became known as Bank One, Chicago’s largest bank (one of the largest in the Midwest and nation). Bank One Corporation and its stock was traded under the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol One. This merger created the nation’s 5th largest Bank with assets of more than $240 billion. Bank One is a major corporate bank nationally and in selected international markets in 11 foreign countries, the nation’s largest credit card company which also is a leading retail bank in eight states, the leading business bank in the Midwest and Arizona, and the largest bank mutual fund company. With assets of more than $270 billion currently, Bank One Corporation is one of the nation’s largest financial services companies. Bank One currently serves more than 53 million credit card customers nationwide as well as 7 million companies in 14 states. It also manages more than $149 billion of assets for investors. The bank has 74,000 employees at 2000 branches in 14 states. On July 1, 2004 Bank One became a part of the new JP Morgan Chase. The mergers of the credit card companies, broker/dealer and lead banks will be completed over the next nine months. JP Morgan gives Bank One scale and size. However, the Bank One brand continues to be used in the marketplace.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bank One provides several services to its customers, some of which include, retail services, Commercial Banking, Card Services, Investment management group. The retail service is broken down into, checking and savings accounts, consumer lending, Small business Banking, Debit/ATM Cards, Investment Accounts, Credit Cards, Insurance, Auto loans and leases, Online Banking and Home loans. The Investment Management Gr... ...processors of ATM transactions in the country. Clearly, consolidating in the sector is increasingly common. Bank One and J.P Morgan are together now able to rival Citigroup in retail, commercial, and investment management. This is a task that would have been impossible without a merger between the two organizations. J.P. Morgan (JPM stock ticker) has a â€Å"buy† rating on the stock by Standard & Poors, which one of the most reputable providers of independent financial research in the world. While LaSalle Bank and Bank One compete for Chicago area retail banking business, their overall business strategies are quite different and do not overlap considerably outside of basic retail banking. While the growth rate of J.P. Morgan is not expectedly lower due to the size of the organization and the industry as a whole, the growth is similar to that of the company’s key competitor, Citigroup. The future for J.P. Morgan is likely to be filled with additional mergers and acquisitions. It remains to be seen how the company will compete from an operational and service standpoint with Citigroup; however, it will be a protracted battle between the two stable behemoth financial services firms.

Use of Project Management Software in Business Essay -- Business Manag

Use of Project Management Software in Business Project Management is using the concepts of information technology in businesses to meet the requirements of a particular project. It depends on the process it needs to take to implement a project. The application of knowledge, skills, and tools and techniques is needed (http://www.asp.org/infoglossary/p). There are 3 main phases of project management, they are planning, scheduling and controlling. How the process is implemented is through different types of software applications used to efficiently and effectively run a business to save time, money and resources. A goal (project) is set, the project should be defined, and schedule out each task needed for completion, and identify teams and resources. By controlling, managers need to revise or change plans by monitoring resources, cost, and quality. Lastly, scheduling involves sequencing and allotting time to all project activities. This is where time and resources come in to see how much time is needed to complete, the people to work, and materials needed for the project. There are different project scheduling approaches depending on the project. Project Management in business is very important now that technology is all around us. It has made a difference in customer relationship management by meeting the needs of the customer. It gives the customer a broad range of information to choose from and with the types of information that are readily available. As well as with the customer service and support that is there for customers. It is also important to the businesses when it comes to supply chain management. They are better equipped to develop a fast, efficient, and low cost network of business with their partners to get products from concept to market. I have observed in our readings that the ERP software have failures, but I have seen in my previous employments, that businesses do implement certain software before they do a test run. Some companies who have the software are usually good about doing orientation and training to employees before they begin using the applications. It takes time away from the organizations to do training and also correcting mistakes that happen along the way, but in the end it pays off. I recommend that businesses could implement an overview of the new software before it is implemented. Th... ...ter over the internet, as we call it e-commerce. The difference between the past and future is enormous in the world of project management. It is so important to businesses, consumers, and all stakeholders. Although, not all software work for certain businesses, but with more training and knowledge in project management will improve the process of implementing technology in businesses. Summary: In researching project management, it is an innovation that has a continuing change. People change through knowledge and every innovation does not stay the same. Implementations of projects are also different and the software process has to meet the demands of businesses. For a company to stay abrupt of the changing cycle of technology is an advantage to stay ahead of their competitors. The complexity of documentations has opened the interenterprise of technology in customer relationship management, supply chain management, and enterprise resource planning. Bibliography http://www.asp.org/infoglossary/p http://www.aceproject.com/features.htm http://www.cob.sjsu.edu http://www.cidainc.com Last, first. Operations Management p.58, 60. Date. Page #

Ethics in Our Everyday Lives Essay

This paper will discuss how ethics relate in our everyday lives and more specifically how ethics are used in our workplace also how ethics are used by companies. This paper will also cover how businesses have implemented ethical procedures, standards and how these businesses flourished because of the effective use of ethical standards. â€Å"I consider ethics, as well as religion, as supplements to law in the government of man.† Thomas Jefferson Ethics in our Everyday Lives. As a society we are faced with ethical problems every day, and how we handle these situations shape our culture and lives. However, what are ethics? The meaning of â€Å"ethics† is hard to pin down, and the views many people have about them are shaky. People tend to associate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one’s feelings, nor should one identify ethics with religion, the law or â€Å"whatever society accepts.† Ethics refers to the constant effort of studying our moral conduct, and our own moral beliefs, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and concrete. It is not enough to be able to do the right thing when we ourselves have nothing to lose. We must be willing to fulfill our ethical obligations at the expense of our self-centered desires and vested interests. (Dr. Richard Paul & Dr. Linda Elder, 2003) In short, ethics is doing what is right even when no one is looking. Well-founded standards of right and wrong that advocate what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, benefits to society, obligations, fairness, or specific virtues stem directly from having ethics. Ethical standards also impose the judicious obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, and fraud, therefore a society with a strong code of ethics tends to run smoothly. A society with no code of ethics could very well develop into anarchy. Although arguments have been made, to the contrary, ethics are just as vital in the workplace. Ethics are essential in the workplace because a tough ethical code provides a non-threatening environment with high employee morale, a company that exhibits clear-cut ethics tends to show higher profits, and simply because it is the right thing to do. Perhaps most important, attention to ethics in the workplaces helps ensure that when leaders and managers are strugg ling in times of crises and confusion, they retain a strong moral compass, and this goes for the workers as well. The Ethics Resource Center, a non-profit, non-partisan organization devoted to business ethics, released the results of its 2005 National Business Ethics Survey, polling more than 3000 workers across America. The results were disheartening; 21% observed abusive or intimidating behavior toward employees. 19% observed lying to customers, employees, vendors or the public. 18% observed situations that placed employee interests over company interests. 16% observed violations of safety regulations and misreporting of time worked (Verschoor, 2000, pp. 19-20) Environments that accommodate these low ethical standards tend to feel hostile to the average employee. When this behavior is witnessed repeatedly over time, it lowers morale. And low moral easily leads the employee feels no loyalty towards the company and in turn the company feels no loyalty towards its employees. A workplace that encourages the effective ethical administration, however, is a workplace that breeds strong morale. Patricia Harned, ERC president, states â€Å"Creating a strong ethical environment should be a top priority of all companies.† (Verschoor, 2000, pp. 19-20) According to â€Å"Workplace Ethics†, a company with strong ethical guidelines has a few commonalities. Companies watch encouraged communication; the staff feels open and unthreatened about reporting and discussing ethical concerns. They also clarify rewards and punishments, which provides a meaningful context to what otherwise seems arbitrary. Businesses that encourage trust between management and employs well tend to have a much easier time enforcing their ethical standards. Also businesses found out that by promoting this strategy that it was much less expensive and more effective than legally defining and enforcing their ethical standards. These organizations also build corporate values, which improves the corporate image. (Compilation, 1999) This creates an environment that employees find a joy to work in. Furthermore, from a corporate perspective it is just as significant to note that an ethical company tends to be a profitable company. Can a company have ethical practices, and still show a profit? Yes, according to Business Ethics magazine. By concentrating on the effects of business decisions made and how they enhance or diminish the well being of others, benefits can be seen for the company, the employee, the stockholder, and the consumer. Many of the corporations that show up on the 100 Best Corporate Citizens by Business magazine also show up on Fortune magazine’s 100 Best Companies to Work For in America and Working Mother magazine’s Best Companies to Work For. (Do Good, Do Well, 2001, p. 28) Starbucks is one of these companies and has been a regular on these lists. Starbucks is working to empower farmers in East Timor, where coffee provides the livelihood of 25% of the population. The company also participates in various external programs to help benefit the envir onment and provide relief efforts after disasters. Internally, Starbucks offers many benefits to its employees-including tuition reimbursement, partner benefits, a wellness program and a 25 to 150% match in its 401(k) plan. (Examining the benefits of corporate social responsibility, May1 2006) These factors are just some that contribute to the success of Starbucks and provide the company with the foundation to build a coffeehouse on every street corner. Another company that is perennially honored for its ethical conduct is Southwest Airlines. Although the airline industry has been through what some may characterize as catastrophic circumstances over the last several years Southwest has never cut employee pay. In fact, the organization’s employees took a voluntary pay cut after Sept. 11, 2001, rather than allow surging costs to force Southwest to reduce its flight schedule. â€Å"I’ve been here 28 years,† states Donna Conover, Southwest’s executive vice president of customer service, â€Å"and from the beg inning, we’ve felt that employees are our greatest assets.† (Examining the benefits of corporate social responsibility, May1 2006) An unethical company, however, can expect none of these benefits, and it may actually be part of the reason for failing. A perfect example of an unethical fallout would be that of the oil giant Enron. Former Enron chairman Kenneth Lay, discussing his company’s collapse due to fraud, and insider trading and tax evasion, recently insisted that his once great and honest company adhered to prevailing business practices. â€Å"The Enron task force investigation is largely a case about normal business activities typically engaged in on a daily basis by corporate officers of publicly held companies throughout the country,† Lay insisted in a December 2005 speech. Lay went on to say that the Enron task force was â€Å"attempting to criminalize† what he characterized as common business practices. Under Lay’s perverted ethics code, transactions meant to deceive are not wrong if these transactions, legal or not, are commonly practiced by corporate America. Stockholder s often paid the price of such as moral relativism. (Zamansky, 02/01/2006, p. 11a) This points out what should be the overriding reason for expecting high ethical standards in the workplace-it’s the right thing to do. A recent survey by The Society for Human Resource Management found that 54% of human-resource professionals surveyed had witnessed conduct in the workplace which violated either the law or common practices of their organizations. Some of the violations witnessed ware, Fair Labor Standards Act, violations of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, employees engaging in fraud, falsifying records, altering the results of product tests, and misusing insider information. (Schumann, Spring/Summer 2001, p. 93) The survey found that 47% of those surveyed felt pressured to compromise ethical standards to achieve business objectives. They stated that they did not report observed conduct due to factors such as fear of retribution, lack of trust in the organization’s procedures, the desire to be part of the team, or a feeling that ethics were unimportant to the organizations. (Schumann, Spring/Summer 2001, p. 93) The main culprit for this pervading ethical dilemma is moral relativism. Moral relativism is the belief that because different people have different moral principles, there is no way to pass judgment on these principles as to their validity or lack thereof. Taken to its extreme, this belief would allow any action, from lying to murder, if the perpetrator simply believes his moral framework does not preclude that action. An excellent example of this new moral relativism is recounted by Rhonda Gibbs. â€Å"About three years ago,† she recalls, â€Å"My daughter’s high school basketball coach, (also a teacher), was having a relationship with a minor.† The relationship, she details, was very obvious to those who had daily contact with the pair. Staff, faculty, and students watched the relationship develop over a period of nine months to a year; however, not a single person spoke up about the impropriety of this relationship or the seriousness of this crime. Whether for reasons of not wanting to upset the coach, not wanting to look like a whistle blower, or simply to maintain the status quo, this teacher’s colleagues, the very people charged with protection of the young girl, allowed him to violate her for at least nine months. The school was only forced to deal with the issue when outside parties informed the police. Although the landscape sometimes looks bleak for the proponents of a strong ethical society, ethics do get used in a moral fashion, as this next example illustrates. Some surplus land adjacent to a shopping center was donated to a city by the developers who owned the mall. The land was earmarked by the builders to be used for community soccer fields. They then spent large sums of their own money to develop the fields. The donated land was adjacent to a river, and after many years of spring floods swamping the fields, the city abandoned them. The developers, realizing that the land was no longer being used for their intended purpose, contacted the city. Developers are notorious for taking otherwise useless land and turning it into acres of parking lots. These individuals, however, decided to transform the property, at their own expense, into a community wetland park. This transformation took over two years and several hundred thousand dollars. These businessmen, who were well within their rights to demand the land back since it wasn’t being utilized for its donated purpose, instead did the ethical thing at great cost to themselves. As I can be seen, ethics are important in the workplace and our every day life as well because they provide higher profits, higher morale, and ethical behavior is the proper course of action. Whether decisions made affect the operation of a home, small business, large corporation, or a nation, a clear ethical foundation will always serve to improve our society. References Compilation. (1999). Bulletpoint. Retrieved May 6, 2006, from Workplace Ethics Web site: http://web107.epnet.com Examining the benefits of corporate social responsibility. (May1 2006). Employee Benefit News, pITEM0612100B. Retrieved May 5, 2006, from http://find.galegroup.com. Do Good, Do Well. (2001, January). Workforce, 80, 28. Retrieved May 5, 2006, from http://find.galegroup.com. Dr. Richard Paul & Dr. Linda Elder. (2003). The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning. The Foundation for Critical Thinking. Guest, E. (n.d.). SoFinesJoyfulMoments. Retrieved May 8, 2006, from Mary (Garren) Morand Web site: http://sofinesjoyfulmoments.com/quotes/sermon.htm Schumann, P.L. (Spring/Summer 2001). A moral principles framework for human resource management ethics. Human Resource Management Review, 11 (1/2), 93. Retrieved May 6, 2006, from http://web102.epnet.com. Verschoor, C. (2000, December). Ethical Culture: Most Important Barrier to Ethical Misconduct. Strategic Finance, 87, 19-20. Retrieved May 6, 2006, from http://web107.epnet.com. Zamansky, J. (02/01/2006). At the least, former Enron chiefs are guilty of moral bankruptcy. USAToday, 0734-7456, p. 11a. Retrieved from http://web102.epnet.com.